物理哲學·下上

呂氏春秋‧義賞

昔晉文公將與楚人戰於城濮,召咎犯而問曰:『楚眾我寡,奈何而可?』咎犯對曰:『臣聞繁禮之君,不足繁戰之君,不足。君亦詐之而已。』文公以咎犯言告雍季,雍季曰:『竭澤而漁,豈不獲得?而明年無魚焚藪 ㄙㄡˇ 【草澤】而田【獵】,豈不獲得?而明年無獸詐偽之道,雖今偷可【僥倖】,後將無復【不再】,非長術也。』文公用咎犯之言,而敗楚人於城濮。反【返】而為賞,雍季在上。左右諫曰:『城濮之功,咎犯之謀也。君用其言而賞後其身,或者不可乎!』文公曰:『雍季之言,百世之利也。咎犯之言,一時之務也。焉有以一時之務先百世之利者乎?』孔子聞之曰:『臨難用詐,足以卻敵。反而尊賢,足以報德。文公雖不終始,足以霸矣。』賞重則民移之,民移之則成焉。成乎詐,其成毀,其勝敗。天下勝者眾矣,而霸者乃五,文公處其一,知勝之所成也。勝而不知勝之所成,與無勝同。秦勝於戎而敗乎殽,楚勝於諸夏而敗乎柏舉。武王得之矣,故一勝而王天下。眾詐盈國,不可以為安,患非獨外也。

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握手言和

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以牙還牙
Tit for Tat

論語‧憲問第十四
或曰:『以德報怨,何如?』子曰:『何以報德?以直報怨,以德報德。

一九八四年,美國政治學家羅伯特‧阿克塞爾羅德 Robert Marshall Axelrod 寫了一本《合作的進化》 The Evolution of Cooperation 的書,探討有著『記憶』與『重複』發生的『囚徒困境』,將之稱為『重覆囚徒困境』 IPD iterated prisoners’ dilemma。在此博弈中,參賽者須反覆選擇彼此競合有關的策略,記住之前的結果。阿克塞爾羅德邀請全世界的學術同行來參與設計電腦策略程式,並在一個重覆囚徒困境競賽中互相競爭。 參賽的程式的差異在:演算法的複雜性、最初的對抗、寬容的能力種種方面。

據聞,最佳策略是『以牙還牙』,它是由俄裔美籍數學心理學家阿納托爾‧拉波波特 Anatol Rapoport 所設計的策略。這個程式僅僅只有四行 BASIC 語言陳述句,而且贏得了比賽。這個策略選擇先合作,然後採取對手前一回合的策略。有人說,更好一些的策略是『寬容的以牙還牙』。當你的對手背叛時,在下回合中你應該要『擲筊』偶爾【1%-5 %機會】合作一下。這是為了避免『死結』,萬一雙方誤解了對方的意思該怎麼辦的呢??

阿克塞爾羅德發現,當這種『對抗』被各種策略的參與者一再重覆了很長時間之後,從『利己角度』來判斷,最終『貪婪策略』趨向於減少,繼而比較『利他策略』更多的被採用。他用這個『博弈』來說明,經過『自然選擇』,一種『利他行為』之機制可以從最初『純粹自私』的機制進化而來!!當有了『記憶』,『背叛』恐將遭到『懲罰』時,所謂的『利己』必將思及『因果』效應的吧!

之後『重覆囚徒困境』的『合作‧背叛』二元合作模型,被廣泛的應用於『生物』與『社會』科學中。然而由於『自然選擇』這種『利他行為』,實在『美好的難以置信』,因此『質疑』的聲浪漸起。二零零三年,Peter Hammerstein 編輯了一本 MIT 出版的《Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation》,概觀上說︰

Current thinking in evolutionary biology holds that competition among individuals is the key to understanding natural selection. When competition exists, it is obvious that conflict arises; the emergence of cooperation, however, is less straightforward and calls for in-depth analysis. Much research is now focused on defining and expanding the evolutionary models of cooperation. Understanding the mechanisms of cooperation has relevance for fields other than biology. Anthropology, economics, mathematics, political science, primatology, and psychology are adopting the evolutionary approach and developing analogies based on it. Similarly, biologists use elements of economic game theory and analyze cooperation in “evolutionary games.” Despite this, exchanges between researchers in these different disciplines have been limited. Seeking to fill this gap, the 90th Dahlem Workshop was convened. This book, which grew out of that meeting, addresses such topics as emotions in human cooperation, reciprocity, biological markets, cooperation and conflict in multicellularity, genomic and intercellular cooperation, the origins of human cooperation, and the cultural evolution of cooperation; the emphasis is on open questions and future research areas. The book makes a significant contribution to a growing process of interdisciplinary cross-fertilization on this issue.

Hammerstein 問著︰

Why is reciprocity【互惠】so rare【罕見】 in social animals【社交動物】? A protestant appeal. 【宛如新教呼籲】??

二零零六年,美國加州大學人類學家 Stephen LeRobert Boyd 寫了《Evolutionary dynamics of the continuous iterated Prisoner’s dilemma》一篇論文,探討『連續選擇』 ── 從『背叛0 到『合作1 ── 的 IPD 可能發生的現象。他們使用電腦模擬的結果發現,事實上,想要產生『互惠行為』,不是如二元『重覆囚徒困境』所說的那麼樣『容易』,用他們論文『摘要』中的話講︰

The continuous model outlined here suggests that incremental amounts of cooperation lead to rapid decay of cooperation and thus even a large degree of assortment will not be sufficient to allow cooperation to increase when cooperators are rare. The extreme degree of assortment required to destabilize the non-cooperative equilibrium, as well as the instability of the cooperative equilibrium, may help explain why cooperation in Prisoner’s Dilemmas is so rare in nature.

CIPD

reciprocation

都還沒到過『無何有之鄉』── 烏托邦 ──,誰知就『無所用』的呢?果真不如效《莊子‧逍遙遊》的吧!

惠子謂莊子曰:『吾有大樹,人謂之。其大本臃腫而不中繩墨,其小枝卷曲而不中規矩立之塗【途】,匠者不顧。今子之言,大而無用,眾所同去也。

莊子曰:『子獨不見狸狌乎?卑身而伏,以候敖者;東西跳梁,不避高下;中於機辟,死於罔罟。今夫斄牛,其大若垂天之雲。此能為大矣,而不能執鼠。今子有大樹,患其無用,何不樹之於無何有之鄉,廣莫之野,彷徨乎無為其側,逍遙乎寢臥其下。不夭斤斧,物無害者,無所可用,安所困苦哉!